Bugis People Culture

The people of Bugis-Makassar is the residents of South Sulawesi ( Celebes ) covers an area around 100.457 square kilo meters, with total population around 5.600.000. This people is famous for their expert in sailing on the deep ocean. As a sailor they have spreaded over many areas of Indonesia such as North Sumatera, Malaysia, Kalimantan, Java, Bali, Maluku, Sumbawa, and West Flores.

Makassar is the name refers to the kingdom on South Sulawesi which during 17th century was the biggest after united with the kingdom of Bone, on east coast of south Sulawesi. The size of South Sulawesi is 100.457 square kms including the island of Selayar, Tanah Jampea, Kalao, Bonerate, and Tanakeke. Anthropological studies said that the people of south Sulawesi is the Bugis, although based on dialect can be further grouped into the Bugis itself, Makassar, Toraja, Mandar, and Duri. The fact that people speaking Bugis dialect group is the biggest number. People speaking dialect of Makassar is now the residents of Makassar city, which was known also as Ujung Pandang city, south east tip of south Sulawesi and Selayar island. The Mandar dialect is found on north west coast of South Sulawesi on the area of Majene northward up to Mamuju. While dialect of Duri very small number neighboring with Toraja people.

 Due to wide area of South Sulawesi it is believed that during the course of history the culture of Bugis experienced some changes on some places or known as some transformations, so we now know some types of cultures and dialect son the region. Although he title is Bugis people we here discuss in general about the ethnics still within the group of south of Sulawesi. Makassar is flourishing kingdom of Bugis kingdom in 17th century and probably before when Hindu influence reached the region. While Toraja people and its culture will be treated separately as this people as if they are having their own culture known worldwide. The record by governor of South Sulawesi Province in 1969 mentions that the number of people estimated 5.643.067.

Linguistic study by B.F. Matthes found that ancient south Sulawwesi had written tradition using Indian writing, in both Bugis who used a language called Ugi, and the Makassar used a language called Mangsara. It is preserved on lontar leaves or paper. The writing is known as aksara-lontara. Aksara is Sanskrit word for alphabet, and Lontara is palm leaves. In the turn of 17th century century Islam started to enter south Sulawesi from Seram island in Ambon.

 Also the writing is changed into Arabian which is called huruf Serang ( probably from word " Seram " ).

 Many heritages on Bugis literature can be mentioned such as big collection of Bugis myth called Sure Galigo, ethnic called Paseng, leaders' decisions called Rapang, and others. Starting the coming of Islam in 17th century and arrival of Dutch V.O.C military the situation of South Sulawesi is said never in peace. Between existing kingdoms were bloody conflict, and V.O.C military oppressed them very fiercely, causing many of them leaving their land and live on other parts of Indonesia. Today we can find Bugis people at any part of Indonesia who still preserve their tradition, although already following Islam.

In the past the pattern of their settlement was centered on sacred place with big banyan tree called "possi tana" enclosed by between 10 to 200 houses. A settlement is headed by a Matoa or Jannang, or Lompo, or Toddo, assisted by 2 persons, the Sariang or Parennung. A unit of some settlements is called Wanua is Bugis and Pa'rasangan or bori in Makassar. From here we write a name as follows Bugis/Makassar just to make it short. The head of Wanua is Arung Palili or Sullewatang/Karaeng. After independence Wanua is the position of Kecamatan administration.

The shape of house the Bugis and makassar have the same style, except the Toraja is very unique which is discussed on special for Toraja people. The house is built on poles, the upper room under roof is to put rice, called rakkeang/pammakkang, room for living called ale bola/balle bolla, while space under the floor called awasao/passiringgang, to put farming tools, chicken house and other. Based on social status can be divided into 3 houses, sao raja/balla or lompo is a big house of noble family, normally has steps with storyed base, and roof top with 3 levels. Sao piti/tanarata is smaller house without top roof, bola/balla is common people house. To build a house an expert of tradition called panrita bola make a ritual to choose the spot where the house is to be built. Some times buffalo head is buried as the ritual to avoid the bad luck that might face the house.

Traditional system of Bugis people introduce social strata such as the group of royal people or noble called Anakarung/Anakaraeng, common people of independent people called to maradeka/tu maradeka. The third group was ata meaning slave which was believed only appear much later in Bugis - Makassar society. Today the title of nobility such as Karaenta, Puatta, Andi and Daeng are still being used but meaning not much in the society. Today this social layers are not noticeable anymore in pace with changes orientation of the people life, as does the ideal marriage couple of the people which was between third level of family relation and big amount of doory and marriage expenses, now changed already. 

 Marriage between grand children of brothers/sisters was not always smooth, some times also facing objection. If the objection come from the family of woman sometimes the man abducted the woman and hiding months at certain place and seek protection to prominent people, who could often use his power to dispose the anger of the woman family.

The people of Bugis is an obedient people to their original tradition although those who already live outside South Sulawesi. Their sacred tradition called panngaderreng/panngadakkang. The tradition is based on elements namely (1) Ade/ada an ethic of marriage, kinship, generation, relation among relatives, and the ethic on politic. (2) Bicara is the procedure of law proceedings and judgment, (3) Rapang can be said as samples, analogy, or metaphors of past events to be used as reflection of life. (4) Wari, ethic of classification on objects and social matters, (5) Sara, social organization and Islamic rules.

Original belief of Bugis as it is mentioned on Sure' Galigo is the god of Patoto-e hold human fate, god Seuwa-e the single god, Tuie a' rana the highest wish. With the coming of Islam this original belief has changed into syari'ah, especially with the intensive effort of Muhammadiyah to purify Islam in south Sulawesi. The purifications probably to make Islam like in Middle East, and to leave traditional spirits such as homage to certain place, homage to ancestors, respect to nature in general. But the spirit of well known "siri" is still stitched in every heart of Bugis/Makassar winch freely can be translated into non negotiable self dignity. Some experts say this is not only self, but group and it can arrive at a fatal action such as murder.

Bugis people is well known for their craft of making phinisi wooden ship can be used to sail on the deep ocean. As the producer of wooden ship they also professional on sailing to any ocean, even it is recorded that at the begriming of Australia being colonized by British, a connection between northern Australia and Indonesia was frequent until the British banned Indonesian seafarers to call at the land of northern territory.

Batak People Culture

The term "Batak" is used to refer the original resident of North Sumatra. The areas referred to as their country is stretching from Medan up to the areas around lake Toba and further South in Mandailing regency, the border of West and North Sumatra.

Four sub-group is known for this Batak tribe those are Batak Karo, Batak Toba, Batak Mandailing, and Batak Simalungun. There is no physical and social differences, just a slight different in not visible behavior and dialect. Their different names refers the area where they live. Most of them are a Christian or Catholic, since around 18th century many Christian missionaries live in North Sumatra.

They also have Mongoloid characters, and speak Malayu- Polinesian language as the other part of Sumatra. Among them Toba was the latest area to open with other part of Sumatra, but soon getting so famous due to their natural beauty around Lake Toba with Samosir island on it. Historical remains of the Batak Toba in the past is still preserved well such as ancient king burial, slaughting altar, and the Tor Tor dance. These are all on the beach of Samosir island.

Now on the beach of Samosir island and across the lake called city of Parapat have been developing very fast as a tourists resort area with dozens of hotel small and big, nice roofed boats to cross the lake or sight seeing between island and places on the bank of the lake. The people of Batak is the resident of North Sumatra highland such as the present district of Tanah Karo, Simalungun, Tapanuli utara, Tapanuli Tengah, Tapanuli Selatan, Dairi and Ashan. 

 

That is also the ethnic of Batak is further grouped according to their district into sub ethnic of Karo, Simalungun, Pakpak, Toba, Angkola, and Mandailing. According to the record in 1930, the Karo were 120.000 persons, the Simalungun were 50.000, the Toba were 400.000, the Mandailing were 160.000 persons.

Batak language also has the variation which are spoken by sub ethnics such Karo dialect, Pakpak dialect, Simalungun dialect, and Toba dialect spoken by the Toba, angkola and Mandailing. Figure in 1930 for the whole North Sumatra in 1930 was 2.500.000 and only 30 years later had double the number into 5.000.000 Compared to the size of North Sumatra which is 70.787 square kms, the density is only 70 person per square meter.

As other ethnic of Indonesia the Batak also has house and village certain pattern which is specific for them. Terminologies such as huta at Batak Toba refers a territory of one clan, The Karo use the name kesain, while kreta for the Karo is bigger then huta in Toba, which consist of various clans. 

 

In the past both kuta and huta were enclosed by tight woods as a wall of resistence against the attack of other huta or kuta. Within a kuta or a huta there are some rows of houses among which is open place as a yard for the place of ceremony of marriage, death and others. Some hutas had deep canal around, or high wall for their resistance. In it's court yard also built the farming rice granary which was also used as sleeping place by younger generations.

Every villages of Karo, Simalungun and Mandailing have public hall for meeting, while for Batak Toba they have a spot of land near the main gate of huta. A typical mark of huta is a banyan tree at the front, which is considered as the symbol of nature. This idea reminds about villages in Bali. The pattern has now experienced much changes especially those resistance aspects as the war among kuta and huta has been in exist anymore. Lumban refers to an area settled by part of clan, and only exist in Toba. Sasor is a new small settlement, built because the huta has been full. The sasor after years can be developed into a huta if physical and spiritual characters have been fulfilled, and is given the approval by the bius.

 

 The terms of bius, partahian, urung and partumpukan each is used by the Batak of Toba, Angkola, Karo, Simalungun and Pakpak refers a unit of some hutas or kutas. In this case clannish border is neglected. The establishment of a huta must be followed by a ritual and paid the debt to the main huta. The ritual is started with the offering to the god of the earth called Boraspati ni tano. The offering consist of Batak land product, and conducted by a shaman called "datu". This ceremony reminds about the same process of building a house in Bali which is called "Ngeruak" which is addressed to the god of rice "Dewi Sri", or the mother earth "Pertiwi". The son of Pertiwi is often referred as "Banaspati". So it should have been relation between the Batak and Balinese in some aspect of life under the Hindu influence.

Batak house is called "Uma" or "Jabu" Toba, which shows they have same root with Balinese and other Indonesian ethnics. The Uma or Jabu is built on many wooden poles, but do not as high as those house on stilt on the islands. Their wooden board wall is made sloping, with roof made of palm black fibres. The size around 10 to 10 meters elongated east-west orientation. Doors are constructed on the west and east sides at Karo and Simalungun, while at Toba entrance is from the roof, and on the west and east side of the house have high caps the place to put buffalo horns. The peak of the house is made half circle. 

 

At Karo there is an ayo beside on Uma. An ayo is decorated with geometric ornamentations with colors red, white, yellow and black. On the right and left are put sculptures, human head or lion's head sculptures. The wall is tied with rope made of black palm fibre to look like lizard. A typical aspect of Karo house which can not be found at other Batak houses is the bamboo terrace constructed at the front of the house as the place of the girl to meet with youth for a visit.

 

 A Batak house in general is a home for more than one families connected on genealogy, only in Toba that a house is for big families, as they live in virilocal system. In general the Batak live as farmer, grow rice with irrigation system, except at Karo and Simalungun there are still working at dry land by clearing and burn forest. At the dry land the owner of the land is the Kuta or huta, they have the right on the land, but there also land owned individually, for example what is called panjaean land, which is given to their son after his marriage as the capital for their life while pauseang land is the land given to a daughter after her marriage with same purpose as Panjaean.

In general the Batak still cultivate the land by simple way, only once a year s harvest can be yielded. Women do not involve in process of cultivation. Other short live horticultures are not grown except on the shore of lake Toba. Their tools of cultivating land is still simple such as ; hue, plough, poles, and knife to harvest. The plough in Batak language is called "tenggala" exactly the same name as Balinese used in Batak, the tenggala is drown by buffalowm while in Bali by 2 cows. Other subsistence for most of Batak society is growing pigs, cows, and chicken, for , meat supply to big city like Medan as well as the need of ceremony.

The land of Batak Toba has the most beautiful scenery such as the view of Lake Toba with it's Samosir island. On the northern wall of Toba crater is a magnificent water fall called Sipiso-piso. This natural setting combined with tradition of the Batak on the island of Samosir has been one of the most visited destination is Indonesia. Combined with specific fauna of Orangutans at Mount Leuser national park, north Sumatra has become very famous destination.

Marriage tradition in Batak society in the past born kinship system at the same level of understanding between sub-ethnic of the Batak with some different terminologies for certain kinship aspects. The ideal marriage according to Batak old tradition is merry the daughter of mother's broder's daughter. A youth was not free to choose his partner, he must follow the family tradition. Today this tradition is not followed by a large part of the society anymore.

 

 The initiative of delivering a plan of marriage was taken by the family of the youth by sending a formal messengers to the family of the girl. If the plan has been accepted by the family of the girl, then a discussion will take place between the family of the youth and the girl. This is concerning the amount of gift to be given to girl family, which were consist of sum of money, accessories, buffaloes, and pigs. The amount of gift that will be given to the brother of girl's mother, the amount of gift that will be given to the brother of girl's grand mother. 

 

The amount of gift to be given to the sisters of girl's mother, the amount of gift to be given to the brother of girl's mother. Besides the family of the girl there are also gift for brothers of girl's father. During the feast of marriage, usually the buffaloes and pigs were cooked for the members of Kuta or Huta that participated the feast. During the feast that the gift is given according to the tradition. Living tradition after marriage normally with the family of husband or virilocal, while there were some live with wife family or uxorilocal when the family of husband was poor.

A large part of Batak society are monogamy, while polygamy is not practiced, although customary low does not prohibit this practice. In case a window with her children then married a second husband, she and her children have no right on the wealth of the family. If the husband is dead, the widow must merry the brother of her husband or one of husband relative. 

 

If she doesn't want to, she ask divorce, and only the son can decide the divorce, or the grandchild. Procedure of normal divorce is that, the husband present his problem to the head of the customs who will call an elders to call the family of both sides. In this meeting will be decided who has been wrong. If the wife has been wrong she has to return double of the amount of gift received during marriage ceremony. If the husband is wrong, all his lost as a result of giving gifts and other will not be returned.

Baduy People Culture

Baduy people are the people of Sundanese living on the area around the beginning of Ciujung river, Kabupaten Lebak, Banten province. Some writings and people outside Baduy consider the people are isolated and legged civilization or even primitive. An observer and writer of "Potret Kehidupan Masyarakat Baduy" (Picture of Baduy People Life ) Djoewisno, MS wrote : " The Baduy is not isolated, but they isolate themselves"

Folk tale among the people of Banten mentions that during 15th century Sunda kingdom with the center probably around current Bogor, precisely around Cipanas area and one of its vassal that was Banten with the center at old Banten Girang located near mount Pulasari, Kabupaten Pandeglang. National Archaeological Research has nearly close to the complete scene of old Banten kingdom as one of the old Sunda kingdom beside Pajajaran.

 

 Tradition of Sunda such as the poets of Sejarah Banten, Tangtu Pangelaran, and Serat Centhini are resources in disclosing the mystery of Banten or West Java in general besides formal edicts of kings. Around 14th century the Hindu kingdom of Sunda, known as Pajajaran felt down after being attacked by Moslem army of Cirebon under commander of Sunan Gunung Jati. It was told that so easy to subdue the royal palace due to great welcome of local people to Islam, as Islam promised all people will get Sorga, not like Hindu which was basically royal religion and indicated a complex ritual to attain sorga. 

 

The last prince named Prabu Pucuk Umum was unable to face Moslem army fled with some ministers to the forest, hiding behind the mountain, ravines, months even years to get rid of Moslem army attack. At last the group arrived at a dense virgin forest called Mandala Singkah, and the first place they stop is called Panembahan Arca Domas,located at the beginning of Ciujung river. 

This full miserable story of self rescue is still being heard among the Baduy in the form of song during rice maturity season. The Arca Domas is now center and most sacred place for Baduy people and culture, it is not every one can visit the place. Arca Doma is a stone simple arrangement forming 13 grades. Before talking about Arca Domas, will see their belief first. Many people think that the Baduy follow Buddhist, since they related to the palace of Pajajaran or Sunda kingdom. The fact today there is a belief of Sanghyang Batara Tunggal ( the one god ). This oneness has the characteristic of omniscience, invisible yet imaginable by heart, omnipotence, omnicreator who protects movement on universe, ravine, river, peak of mountain, forests, caves, lakes and other sacred places. When a person died his/her soul will return to Sanghyang Batara Tunggal. This belief reminds on Hinduism in Bali, not Buddhism. The name of Sang Hyang reminds the original belief of ethnics of Indonesia before Indian influence, while Batara is purely Indian. It has been a mixed aspects between local and Indian, especially Hindu.

Arca Domas honored as Panembahan Arca Domas. Penembahan is a title for important person especially having connection with royal family and power on society such as king, ministers, and persons having great service to the people.Arca mean sculpture, Domas means eight hundreds, which reminds the way Balinese accounting. It is probably that the 800 sculptures were dedicated to high dignitaries as a cemetery. According to writers who had been given the permission by the people to visit the place such as Prof. Veth, Mr. Kooder, and Djoewisno, MS< the place had beautiful panorama, arising unique feeling among hundred year old trees, stones covered by moat, deep ravine, beautiful and wide gorges.

 

 All these made an experience of a great nature sweeping a way the feeling of tiredness, hunger and thirsty. The path to reach the sacred place of Arca Domas is said extremely difficult and disguise. The forest around the area has many spring water sources and are closed to even the Baduy themselves and there are sanctions for the offender. It can be a bad penalty such as 3 months work on force and ritual to pay his/her sin. What is called Arca Domas is megalith like construction in 13 grades filled with up right stones, yet the original shapes are not visible, covered by thick moat. On the back is a cave with stalagmite and stalactites.

Offending traditional regulation is a serious act, if within 3 months work under force fail to pay the penalty of ritual then the offender will be exiled, his/her land will be confiscated and given to the traditional village organization or the Adat. If he offender is the resident of Baduy Dalam village, he/she will be moved to outer Baduy village known as Baduy Pendamping villages, if the offender is from outer Baduy village then there are places to put offender on exile such as villages of Cibengkung, Pangawean, and Cipatih. If the offender is non Baduy people, provided prepare to pay the fine, he/she will be released but his/her whole life will be banned to enter Baduy land again, their organization is so effective in preventing this.

The structure of organization of Baduy people is centered on Arca Domas connected directly to the 3 main important villages called Baduy Dalam, freely translated as inner Baduy. This inner Baduy consist of 3 villages namely Cibeo, Cikeusik and Cikartawana. While outer Baduy villages exist around 30 villages. Visitors normally free to visit outer Baduy villages, but with tight permission only to visit Baduy Dalam with various regulations to be followed. 

 

This villages are the places of the highest Baduy traditional leaders. The head of the village is called Pu'un, and the area of the village administration is called Kapu'unan. The head of Kapu'unan is the highest leader on customs, social, religion, and all aspect of Baduy life. Among 3 Kapu'unan, the Cibeo and Cikartawana are under the supervision of Cikeusik. 

 

A head of Kapu'unan is assisted by a Kokolot as an adviser, Girang Serat assigned as assistant of socio-economic affairs, a Jaro for security, a Jaro Tangtu as communicator between people and Pu'un, a Jaro Tujuh consist of 7 persons assisting Girang Serat, Jaro Dangka is charge for religious and cultural affairs, Jaro Tanggungan XII consist of 12 persons a security team in charge for surveillance of people entering and leaving Baduy village area.

 

 A member of Baresan Salapan consist of 9 persons and the Pu'un as the head assigned as an supreme attorney and judge. The position of Pu'un is based on heritage of a family because only those having blood connection with the earlier Pu'un or considered the generation of Sanghyang Batara Tunggal descendant. All persons having the position within Kapu'unan must have been married, and if within his term, his wife is dead, he must resign from position, because in Baduy customs a polygamy is tabo.

The personality of Baduy people is interesting, their body is stilt, clear yellowish skin, straight forwardness, never laughing or joking, look arrogant but humble, honest, strong resolution but not stubborn, not easy to be influenced or persuaded, but never giving trouble to others. No invalid person was found so far. The most striking tradition and ways of life which is actually the fundamental character of nation to reach a dignity are the following 10 ways of life called Dasa Sila especially no.1,2,3,4, and 5.

Aceh People Cultures

The special district of Aceh is located on the northern most top of Sumatera island, covers an area of 55.390 square kilo meters, include 3 mains islands on the north shore. Actually there are many small islands still not mentioned here. Aceh is one of the areas in Indonesia that already introduce writing. Their writing is called Arab-Malay and was used by older generations, while younger generations do not know this writing anymore since in school they study Latin alphabets.

The nature anger that devastated Aceh in 2004 has been living a great missery to the people of Aceh, which religious piety has been the most strongest in the world. We belive that the people of Aceh are really obeyed the religion from the deepest heart, not like other coutries that hold Muslim as only the outer mark to get the sympathy of the illitrate. The strong obedience of Aceh to Muslim do not bear terrorists like other countries or areas. Yet we as a human being do not understand why such a religious ethic must be punished by mother nature not limited to the Aceh provice only but Yogyakrta and South Kalimantan, South Sulawesi, Central Lombok where Muslim are planted soo deep. In Aceh, based on language that exists, can be grouped into 4 dialects from the same great parent of Autronesian. Those 4 dialects have been developed so far, so each other do not understand by their own language.

1. Gayo - Alas dialect; is spoken by Gayo land people in central Aceh,
2. Aneuk Jamee dialect; spoken by group in South and West Aceh,
3. Tamiang dialect; spoken by people scattered along the border of Aceh and North Sumatera at the east side,
4. Aceh dialect; spoken by 70% of the total Special District of Aceh, those are living in East, North, Pidie, and part of West Aceh.

The shape of their houses is called high house, as it is built on a wooden poles to avoid animal attack and flooding. Their basic subsistence are rice, but their irrigation system is still not yet developed and largely depend on season which is only once a year. They also grow catles such as cows and buffaloes. They know also trading intra provinces such as with North Sumatera with Medan as the center of the economic activities. Other farming products such as coffee and rubber are all exported to Medan. In the past Aceh is also famous for their spice, but with the monopoly of Dutch East Company, their prices were always valueless and the farming was neglected by the people.

See from their traditional organization Aceh showing a democratic organization which is manifested in an organization called Gampong. Beside the head of Gampong and his assistants there is a people representative elected from senior peoples who have vast experiences to sit in the element of Gampong organization and involve in the society's affairs. Aceh is the first Indonesian region to receive the influence of Islam and has been developing into loyal Moslem devotees, and take every efforts to establish Islam in all life's aspects. That is why Aceh is often called " the gate of Mecca ". But Acehnese is not a religious extremists, nor a terrorists, they are Malay people sharing common virtues and wickedness with all of Indonesian. Due to the bad management of Indonesian government in the past they are now requesting an independency.

ACEH HAS BEEN DEVASTATED BY TSUNAMI ON SUNDAY 09.00 WIB 26 DECEMBER 2004 OF 8.9 RICHTER SCALE EARTH QUAKE WHICH KILLED 228.000 PERSON INCLUDING ACEH PROVINCE, AND NORTH WEST BEACHES OF NORTH SUMATRA, NIAS AND THE WEH ISLAND. AS A RESULT NIAS COULD NOT BE VISITED UNTIL THE TIME IT IS RECOVERED. SECOND QUAKE ON 28 MARCH 2005 OF 7.5 RICHTER SCALE HAS KILLED AT LEAST 8.000 PEOPLE OF NIAS AND LEFT HUNDREDS HOMLESS AND INJURED.

 The beautiful island and it's people in Nias has been put in trial by the nature despite the fact that their life from beginning has been very difficult only based on the sea product managed traditionally and also their farming is not favourable. This is real an irony of the nature that giving people the missery unlimited for their burden. It is the same as what has happened in Aceh. Aceh people is the most obedient Muslim people to the god ( Allah ) in the world. Might be they need to review what theyhave been so far.

Ambon People Culture

Ambon is on of the islands which is now a province of Indonesia called "The Province of Maluku". The main island of Maluku are Buru, Ambelau, Boano, Ambon, Saparua, Seram, Gorong group, Watubela group, Banda group, Kai group, Aru group, Tanimbar group, Babar group and other small group of islands spreaded on the ocean between Sulawesi and West Papua.

 Maluku is the province having the biggest number of islands which area is the sea as the biggest percentage. In this writing the current province of North Maluku can not be separated such as Halmahera, Ternate and Tidore islands. Historically Ternate and Tidore were once had important role in the history of Maluku archipelago.

The location of each island or each group of islands is far and the means of transportation among islands is limited within a long period. This situation has caused much of the island were in isolated status until just recent years when motorized boat reaches the islands. The population of Maluku is a typical beach settlers living as fishermen, and small number as farmers. 

Census in 1971 recorded the number of population was 1.088.945. In this very short account not all islands of Maluku will be presented, as in detail the difference are great, while in general the island of Ambon as one of the most developed area. Maluku can represent the diversity of the region.

Traditional villages on the island of Ambon was built along main road closed each other, or in a group of houses separated by land. This small group of houses is called "Soa". The original houses of Ambon, the same as Nias, Mentawai, Bugis, Torajan, and other ethnic groupsof Indonesia, is built on high wooden poles. 

Many soa which are located close each others from a village called "Aman". A complex of aman called "Desa" which is also called "Negari" headed by a "raja". The center of the negari will be seen with the existence of meeting hall, house of raja, church, mosque, house of the clergy, shops and various stalls.

The people of Ambon most of them are traditional an very simple farmer, reminds use about the Nias, Mentawai and Dayak. They clear and burn forest plant the crops' seeds only using wooden stick. The main subsistence of Ambonese, as well as other people of Maluku is Sago the inner content of a palm tree, the same as the people in West Papua. Although rice is now cooked but not totally change the sago.

 The traditional process of making sago is exactly the same as simple way on northern shore of West Papua. Other crops they grow in small scale are rice, coffee, potato, tobacco, banana, mango, durian and cloves. Cloves, Ambon has been known by European as the source of spice.

The cultivation of spice is not complicated, just planted on a cleared land around heavy plantations.

Hunting wild animal such as pigs, deer and casuary birds using traditional trap which will hang the animal when the trap is stepped.

Kinship system of the Ambonese is based on minimum leanage called mata-rumah, where a group of relatives of patrilineal relation. This unit is called fam. Bigger unit of fam is famili. Fam give the traditional rules on marriage, and use of land among patrilineal relation, while famili also has the same function.

 The Ambonese introduces 3 ways of marriage, fled, a couple left their house, so the family of youth and girl will lost and realized that their son or daughter has left from house to marry. For the couple this way is preferable to avoid procedures, but is not convenient for girl's family. When a couple left their house for marriage, the youth family that will actively tracing and discussing with relatives, the parents of girls and other families to solve and completing the process. 

A youth when he plans to marry by taking the girl away, usually has been known by girl's family. The youth with the help of his friends or his relative will take the girl in her room and bring all her clothing away. An envelope with letter will be put on the bed of the girl. After the girl is taken away she will be under protection of youth family. In this case a girl is lost or taken by a youth for marriage, and left marriage gift on her bed, it means girl's parents do not know who is the youth. 

Second way is normal marriage request which will be organized by youth parent, the same as other ethnics of Indonesia with big marriage gift, why this system is not preferable, especially for poorer people. Beside marriage gift which is to much, also the feast makes the family over burden, Third tradition is a marriage, that the youth move from his family to the girl's family. This is caused by inability to give marriage gift, or the youth family do not approve the girl due to different social status.

Polygamy is allowed among moslem, but forbidden in Christian society. Although among Ambonese Moslem polygamy is allowed but not practiced like in Java and Lombok. Social organization in Ambonese society, as mentioned above consist of the head of "Soa", and many soas become a "Negari" headed by a "Raja". The position of raja is based on geneology, although tradition rules to appoint based on election. 

Other traditional positions are 'tuan tanah" an official expert in land and it's people, Kapitan is a war expert, Kewang is a forest watcher, Marinyo is news pronouncer. All above traditional officers as a body of traditional government is called "Sanitri". The actual daily administration of the villages is actually done by the head of soa both traditional affairs and the government of Indonesia. The striking social character of people in Maluku is the big number of social organization or association.

The existence of Patasiwa and Patalima for the people is very important. Pata means part, undoubtedly a word of Sanskrit "patha" in English "part"and "siwa" means nine, lima means five. So in short there are an organization of "9 parts" and "5 part". The organization of Patalima is belong to the people living around Mala river and Teluk Putih on Seram island. This organization is divided into 2 groups, the patasiwa hitam and the patasiwa putih. No one of the people can explain the origin or concept of this organization anymore. 

See from the history where Ambon or Maluku was under the influence of Ternate and Tidore kingdoms for years since 1500s, it was assumed that this division was to give a mark to each of above kingdom colony. That is patasiwa hitam must give her skin certain tato, so this assumption bring to a conclusion that the tradition of patasiwa and patalima was originated from Ternate or Tidore. In the past it was said that patasiwa hitam who give the face tatuage, was member of secret organization who often beheaded their enemy.

Other organization are girl's association or Jajaro and youth organization or Ngungare. When a girl married outside her soa the Ngurare can block her way out if the white cloth gift is not yet delivered to the parent of the girl. While on west Seram there is more freedom to a girl to host guests, picnic, and wear beautiful dressing during ritual of the tradition.

Other organization in Ambon is called pela, which members are between soas or villages. This pela can be divided into pela keras, pela minum darah, and pela tempat makan sirih. Pela keras involves the co-operation in urgent need such reciprocal assistance in hard work, war and others. It is forbidden to marry between member of pela keras. 

While pela minum darah is almost the same organization with oath of mixing their drop of blood from their finger then the drink together. Pela makan sirih was formed to get reciprocal assistance in constructing Church, Mosque, and School. The formation of pela was believed as a result of the continues pressures from kingdoms of Tidore, Ternate, Dutch, and Portugais. Other organization is muhabet, an organization to organize all the need of death ceremony.

The ethnic conflict involved the archipelago in the year of 2000 until 2005 has totallychanged the vision of both Moslem and Christian of the island.

Indonesian Etnic Cultures

The Archipelago
One the world map of geography Indonesia lies between 115^o to 145^o latitude and 11^o and altitude. An almost 5000 kilometers stretch from western tip to eastern tip of the archipelago, and around 1700 kilometers stretch from northern tip to southern tip. No exact counting has been cited on the number of islands. Formally recorded 13.677 islands scattered along the equator. While the total land area is only around 2.000.000 square kilo meters, while the total area of Indonesia including sea is around 9.000.000 square kilometers, which is around 21/2 time total land of Australia.

Indonesia Before Christian Era

Oldest Inhabitant
Anthropological and Archaeological researches have proved that Java island has the oldest anthropomorphic remains such as Pithecanthropus Erectus, and Homo-Soloensis. Homo-Soloensis is considered the same stock as Homo-Neanderthal in Israel. Physical characteristics show a close relation with the ancestors of Australian Aborigines found in Talgai, Darling town NSW, and Keilor, near Melbourne.

Melanesoid Characters
The ancestors of Homo-Soloensis and Australian Aborigines is called Austro-Melanesoid, which had a wide distribution over South East Asia and the Pacific regions. Their cultural remains in the form of shell-mount and simple painting on cave wall are found from Sumatera, Java, Sulawesi, Flores, and West Papua. To the North as far as Hanoi, to the South as far as Australia.

Mongoloid Characters
Old mongoloid distribution has been found in south Sulawesi. A cave called Leang-Leang is one of the historical fact about this. Later period has been proved that a wide distribution of group also having preponderant mongoloid physical characters are recorded. This group has the most widest spread. Linguistic study has compiled a distribution from Madagascar island near East Africa beach, Indonesia, North Papua, Central Papua, and South Papua, Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesian archipelago. The parent of this language has been known as Kadai Language ( spoken in Vietnam ) and Austronesian is spoken in Indonesia and Pacific. Historians called this old language as "Proto-Austronesian".
It is supposed that they already knew land cultivation. These 2 plants which are until now still one of their products are "keladi"( colocasia antiquorum) and "ketela jalar" (dioscorea esculanta, in English often called "taro or yam"). Keladi and ketela in have slight variations which are known by all areas.
The distribution route of this group can be traced with the finding of their famous farming tool called "oval axe" which is still in use among primitive inhabitant of Papuan near the mountain areas for cultivating land. This Austro-Melanesoid group might have got their skill and tools from Proto-Austronesian friend that come later. The distribution of oval axe is associated with the use of Proto-Austronesian language to the South as far as Bismarck island.
At around same period with the spreading of Proto-Austronesian people, an other historical fact is found that is the distribution of quadrangular axe tied on a wooden pole. The origin of this tool is Vietnam ( South China ), with the distribution on Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Bali up to Flores and Philippine. This tool is associated with the use of a version of language that is called Austronesia.
Periodization on above history is not yet established but based on some dating on associated tools found underground it is probably between 2000 to 1000 BC.

Bronze Culture
A wave of bronze drum and axes entered Indonesia with wide distribution. The development of this technic has been known to the first at the Mesopotamia ( near present Irak ) around 3000 BC, and is believed to have spreaded into China and South East Asia.

Indonesia Entering Christian Era

Indian Influence
With the finding of various historical facts starting the era of Christian, Indian influences had reached some places of Indonesia such as West Java, Kalimantan and Sulawesi. Some great kingdoms such as Kutai Kingdom ( 450 AD), Taruma Negara ( 400 AD ), Sriwijaya Kingdom ( 7-8th Century AD ), Mataram Kingdom ( 9th Century ), and Great kingdom of Majapahit ( 13 - 15th Century ) are recorded as the peaks of Indo-India culture. The influence of India (Hindu) in Indonesia until today is still can be observed especially in language, arts, and traditions. Even in some areas which are already converted into Moslem or Christian the traditions are still alive.

Moslem Influence
By the decline of Hindu kingdoms in Indonesia some cities on the shores made their direct contact with traders from west India who had converted into Islam. Around 13th century had begun the establishment of kingdoms with Islamic characters such as Malaka ( now Malaysia ), Aceh, Banten ( West Java ), Demak ( North Shore of Java ), and Goa ( South Sulawesi ). From here the spread of Islam was fast, especially to those poor areas and illiterate areas which were before never introduce Hindu or Budha. In this type of areas the influence of Moslem is intensive. While those areas which were before introduced Hindu or Buddhist the tradition continues to live, such as Yogyakarta, Madura, Surakarta, some areas in inland Java, Sumatera, and East Kalimantan. In these areas the Moslem is mixed with local traditions and Hindu ritual. Only a small part of Indonesian Moslem is actually a puritan and radical Moslem, which is in Java called " Santri" The Santry can be found in Aceh, Northern shores of Central and East Java, and some areas in land Java.

European Influence
First European to arrive in Indonesia was Portugais in 1555 in search for spices. They can settle some areas without any resistant from local residents at the beginning such as Near Old town of Jakarta, East Timor, and Maluku. Local people in Indonesia was so hospitable from their history, and was not suspicious of the new comers.
Dutch, England, French, also competed or the monopoly of spice trade. Dutch until their organization called VOC finally won the competition and colonized one by one the strategic areas of Indonesia. Now they got the resitant from local people, since they were explicitly clear that they were not just a trader but coming as a ruler to maintain their monopoly. Since 16th century the coming of Dutch in Indonesia had been never without any resistant in almost all areas of Indonesia. So the struggle of Dutch to colonize Indonesia took a tremendous length of time, starting from 1619 when they succeeded in taking over Jakarta ( old name "Batavia" ) until 1906 when Bali finally subdued. During this colonization Dutch administration system, civil laws, education system, feudalism, and religions greatly influenced Indonesia. Most of Indonesian at that generation can speak Dutch.
On 17^th August 1945 benefited by the World War II, after a decades of struggle for freedom, finally Indonesia under the Commander of the Indonesian Revolutionary Movement Dr. Ir. Soekarno and his Vice Commander Drs. Mr. Mohammad Hatta announced to the world the Freedom of Indonesia. This declaration of Independence was greatly unconditionally supported by all ethnics in Indonesia. Did also acknowledgement came for the first place was from India.

Variation of Culture and Tradition in Indonesia
We do not use the term in all the way in this writing, since it would not be enough physical characteristics to classified them into specific ethnic, except some ethnics in East Indonesia. Center of Indonesian Anthropological Study and their expert use the term " Men and Culture" as more moderate terminology. To mention some of the cultural highlight of Indonesia we list below.